mateltechИзвестия высших учебных заведений. Материалы электронной техникиIzvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii. Materialy Elektronnoi Tekhniki = Materials of Electronics Engineering1609-35772413-6387MISIS10.17073/1609-3577-2016-4-221-234mateltech-290Research ArticleСТАТЬИARTICLESПрименение радиоактивных изотопов для создания бета−вольтаических генераторовRadioactive isotopes betavoltaic generator technologyБыковА. С.BykovA. S.

Быков Александр Сергеевич — кандидат технических наук, доцент.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Alexander S. Bykov — Cand.  Sci.  (Eng.),  Associate Professor.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

xalexx1349@mail.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-9531-6072МалинковичМ. Д.MalinkovichM. D.

Малинкович Михаил Давыдович — кандидат физико−математических наук, доцент.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Mikhail D.  Malinkovich  — Cand.  Sci. (Phys.−Math.), Associate Professor.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049. 

malinkovich@yandex.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-6569-466XКубасовИ. В.KubasovI. V.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Ilya V. Kubasov — Assistant.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7185-8715КислюкА. М.KislyukA. M.

Кислюк  Александр Михайлович — магистрант.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Alexander M. Kislyuk — Master Student.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1047-3007КиселевД. А.KiselevD. A.

Киселев Дмитрий Александрович — кандидат физико−математических наук, старший научный сотрудник. 

Dmitry A. Kiselev — Cand.  Sci. (Phys.−Math.), Senior Researcher.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

КсеничС. В.KsenichS. V.

Ксенич  Сергей Владимирович — инженер.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Sergey V. Ksenich — Engineer.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

ЖуковР. Н.ZhukovR. N.

Жуков Роман Николаевич — инженер.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Roman  N. Zhukov — Engineer.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

ТемировА. А.TemirovA. A.

Темиров Александр Анатольевич — ассистент.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Alexander A. Temirov  — Assistant.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

ЧичковМ. В.ChichkovM. V.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Maxim V. Chichkov  — Engineer.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

ПолисанА. А.PolisanA. A.

Полисан Андрей Андреевич — доктор технических наук, профессор.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Andrey  A. Polisan — Dr. Sci.  (Eng.),  Professor.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

ПархоменкоЮ. Н.ParkhomenkoYu. N.

Пархоменко Юрий Николаевич — доктор  физико−математических наук, профессор.

Ленинский просп., д. 4, Москва, 119049.

Yury N. Parkhomenko — Dr. Sci. (Phys.−Math.), Professor.

4 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 119049.

Национальный исследовательский технологический университет «МИСиС»РоссияNational University of Science and Technology MISiSRussian Federation201630122016194221234Copyright © Быков А.С., Малинкович М.Д., Кубасов И.В., Кислюк А.М., Киселев Д.А., Ксенич С.В., Жуков Р.Н., Темиров А.А., Чичков М.В., Полисан А.А., Пархоменко Ю.Н., 20162016Быков А.С., Малинкович М.Д., Кубасов И.В., Кислюк А.М., Киселев Д.А., Ксенич С.В., Жуков Р.Н., Темиров А.А., Чичков М.В., Полисан А.А., Пархоменко Ю.Н.Bykov A.S., Malinkovich M.D., Kubasov I.V., Kislyuk A.M., Kiselev D.A., Ksenich S.V., Zhukov R.N., Temirov A.A., Chichkov M.V., Polisan A.A., Parkhomenko Y.N.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://met.misis.ru/jour/article/view/290

Рассмотрены особенности применения радиоактивных изотопов при создании автономных источников электропитания. Проведен анализ веществ, используемых в радиоизотопных термоэлектрических генераторах. Обоснована перспективность изготовления бета−вольтаических генераторов, представлено сравнение их с другими  источниками электрического питания. Рассмотрен механизм β−распада и его место среди других видов ядерных превращений. Сформулированы основные требования по радиационной безопасности, а также требования к применяемым материалам корпуса и преобразователя. Рассмотрены некоторые предложенные ранее конструкции радиоизотопных бета−вольтаических источников. Приведен перечень изотопов, возможных для применения в качестве источника энергии в бета−вольтаическом генераторе. Рассмотрены методы получения радиоактивных материалов, демонстрирующих β−распад, их основные свойства и природные изотопы. Сделан вывод о предпочтительности выбора изотопа никеля−63 для применения в бета−вольтаических генераторах благодаря оптимальному сочетанию времени полураспада, средней энергии частиц и интенсивности излучения.

In this article  we have  analyzed radioactive isotope applications in the technology of autonomous power  supplies and the materials used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), justified  the  advantage of manufacturing betavoltaic generators, compared them with other electric power sources and considered the mechanism of β−decay and positioned it among other types of nuclear transformations. We have  also  drawn  up the  basic radiation safety requirements to the  materials used for the  hull and  the  converter, analyzed some earlier  designs of radioisotope betavoltaic sources and set up a list of isotopes suitable as energy sources in betavoltaic generators. Furthermore, we have  analyzed methods of obtaining radioactive materials which exhibit β−decay, their  basic properties and  abundance in nature. In conclusion, the  choice of nickel−63 isotope has  been selected as preferable for betavoltaic generators due to the optimum combination of half−life, average particle energy and radiation intensity.

источники питаниябета−вольтаический генераторрадиоактивное излучениеизотопыpower suppliesbetavoltaic generatorsradioactive radiationisotopesМинистерство образования и науки Российской ФедерацииMinistry of Education and Science of the Russian FederationReferencesKoutitas, G. A review of energy efficiency in telecommunication networks / G. Koutitas, P. Demestichas // Telfor Journal. − 2010. − V. 2, N 1. − P. 2—7. URL:http://journal.telfor.rs/Published/Vol2No1/Vol2No1_A1.pdfKoutitas G., Demestichas P. A review of energy efficiency in telecommunication networks. Telfor journal, 2010, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 2—7. URL: http://journal.telfor.rs/Published/Vol2No1/Vol-2No1_A1.pdfBose, B. K . Global energy scenario and impact of power electronics in 21st century / B. K. Bose // IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. − 2013. − V. 60, N 7. − P. 2638—2651. DOI: 10.1109/TIE.2012.2203771Bose B. K. Global energy scenario and impact of power electronics in 21st century. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2013, vol. 60, no. 7, pp. 2638—2651. DOI: 10.1109/TIE.2012.2203771Paradiso, J. A. Energy scavenging for mobile and wireless electronics / J. A. Paradiso, T. Starner // IEEE Pervasive Computing. − 2005. − V. 4, N 1. − P. 18—27. DOI: 10.1109/MPRV.2005.9Paradiso J. A., Starner T. Energy scavenging for mobile and wireless electronics. IEEE Pervasive Computing, 2005, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 18—27. DOI: 10.1109/MPRV.2005.9Moseley, H. G. J. The Attainment of high potentials by the use of radium / H. G. J. Moseley, J. H. Fellow // Proc. Royal Society of London A. − 1913. − V. 88, N 605. − P. 471—476. DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1913.0045Moseley H. G. J., Fellow J. H. The Attainment of high potentials by the use of radium. Proc. Royal Society of London A, 1913, vol. 88, no. 605. pp. 471—476. DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1913.0045Singh, N. Radioisotopes — Applications in Physical Sciences / N. Singh. − Rijeka (Croatia): InTech, 2011. − 496 p. DOI: 10.5772/858Singh N. Radioisotopes — Applications in Physical Sciences. Rijeka (Croatia): InTech, 2011. 496 p. DOI: 10.5772/858Huffman , F. N. Nuclear −fueled cardiac pacemakers / F. N. Huffman, C. Norman // Chest. − 1974. − V. 65, N 6. − P. 667—672. DOI: 10.1378/chest.65.6.667Huffman F. N., Norman C. Nuclear−fueled cardiac pacemakers. Chest, 1974, vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 667— 672. DOI: 10.1378/chest.65.6.667Wei, X. Power sources and electrical recharging strategies for implantable medical devices / X. Wei, J. Liu // Frontiers of Energy and Power Engineering in China. − 2008. − V. 2. − N 1. − P. 1—13. DOI: 10.1007/s11708-008-0016-3Wei X, Liu J. Power sources and electrical recharging strategies for implantable medical devices. Frontiers of Energy and Power Engineering in China, 2008, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1—13. DOI: 10.1007/s11708-008-0016-3Whalen, S. A. Improving power density and efficiency of miniature radioisotopic thermoelectric generators / S. A. Whalen, C. A. Apblett, T. L. Aselage // J. Power Sources. − 2008. − V. 180, N 1. − P. 657—663. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.01.080Whalen S. A., Apblett C. A., Aselage T. L. Improving power density and efficiency of miniature radioisotopic thermoelectric generators. J. Power Sources, 2008, vol. 180, no. 1, pp. 657—663. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.01.080Olsen , L . C . Betavoltaic power sources / L . C . Olsen, P. Cabauy, B. J. Elkind // Physics Today. − 2012. − V. 65, N 12. − P. 35—38. DOI: 10.1063/PT.3.1820Olsen L. C, Cabauy P, Elkind B. J. Betavoltaic power sources. Physics Today, 2012, vol. 65, no. 12, pp. 35—38. DOI: 10.1063/PT.3.1820Seaborg, G. T. Table of isotopes / G. T. Seaborg // Rev. Modern Phys. − 1944. − V. 16, N 1. − P. 1—32. DOI: 10.1103/RevMod-Phys.30.585Seaborg G. T. Table of isotopes. Rev. Modern Physics, 1944, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 1—32. DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.30.585Баранов, В. Ю. Изотопы: свойства, получение, применение / В. Ю. Баранов. − М.: Физматлит, 2005. − 600 с.Baranov V. Yu. Izotopy: svoistva, poluchenie, primenenie [Isotopes: properties, production, application]. Moscow: Fizmatlit, 2005. 600 p. (In Russ.)Ву, Ц. С. Бета−распад / Ц. С. Ву, С. А. Мошковский. − М.: Атомиздат, 1970. − 397 с.Wu Ts. S., Moshkovskii S. A. Beta−raspad [Beta decay]. Moscow: Atomizdat, 1970. 397 p. (In Russ.)Lewis, V. E . Beta decay of tritium / V. E. Lewis // Nuclear Phys. A. − 1970. − V. 151, N 1. − P. 120—128. DOI: 10.1016/0375-9474(70)90972-3Lewis V. E. Beta decay of tritium. Nuclear Phys., 1970, vol. A151, pp. 120—128. DOI: 10.1016/0375-9474(70)90972-3Daris, R. Beta decay of tritium / R. Daris, C. St−Pierre // Nuclear Phys. A. − 1969. − V. 138, N 3. − P. 545—555. DOI: 10.1016/0375-9474(69)90237-1Daris R., St−Pierre C. Beta decay of tritium. Nuclear Phys., 1969, vol. A138, pp. 545—555. DOI: 10.1016/0375-9474(69)90237-1Windle, W. F. Microwatt radioisotope energy converters / W. F. Windle // IEEE Transactions on Aerospace. − 1964. − V. 2, N 2. − P. 646—651. DOI: 10.1109/TA.1964.4319649Windle W. F. Microwatt radioisotope energy converters. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace, 1964, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 646—651. DOI: 10.1109/TA.1964.4319649Rappaport, P. Radioactive charging effects with a dielectric medium / P. Rappaport, E. G. Linder // J. Appl. Phys. − 1953. − V. 24, N 9. − P. 1110—1114. DOI: 10.1063/1.1721457Rappaport P., Linder E. G. Radioactive charging effects with a dielectric medium. J. Appl. Phys., 1953, vol. 24, no. 9, pp. 1110—1114. DOI: 10.1063/1.1721457Müller, S. Search for an admixture of a 17 keV neutrino in the β decay of 35S / S. Müller, Ch. Shiping, H. Daniel, O. Dragoun, N. Dragounová, H. Hagn, E. Hechtl, K.−H. Hiddemann, A. Špalek // Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A. − 1994. − V. 49, N 9. − P. 874—884. DOI: 10.1515/zna-1994-0910Müller S., Shiping Ch., Daniel H., Dragoun O., Dragounová N., Hagn H., Hechtl E., Hiddemann K.−H., Špalek A. Search for an admixture of a 17 keV neutrino in the β decay of 35S. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A, 1994, vol. 49, no. 9, pp. 874—884. DOI: 10.1515/zna-1994-0910Thoennessen, M. Discovery of the isotopes with 11 ≤ Z ≤ 19 / M. Thoennessen // Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. − 2012. − V. 98, N 5. − P. 933—959. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.09.002Thoennessen M. Discovery of the isotopes with 11 ≤ Z ≤ 19. Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 5, pp. 933—959. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.09.002Bogue, R. Powering tomorrow’s sensor: a review of technologies. Pt 1 / R. Bogue // Sensor Review. − 2010. − V. 30, N 3. − P. 182—186. DOI: 10.1108/02602281011051344Bogue R. Powering tomorrow’s sensor: a review of technologies. Pt 1. Sensor Review, 2010, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 182—186. DOI: 10.1108/02602281011051344Meier, D. E. Production of 35S for a liquid semiconductor betavoltaic / D. E. Meier, A. Y. Garnov, J. D. Robertson, J. W. Kwon, T. Wacharasindhu // J. Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. − 2009. − V. 282, N 1. − P. 271—274. DOI: 10.1007/s10967-009-0157-9Meier D. E., Garnov A. Y., Robertson J. D., Kwon J. W., Wacharasindhu T. Production of 35S for a liquid semiconductor betavoltaic. J. Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 2009, vol. 282, no. 1, pp. 271—274. DOI: 10.1007/s10967-009-0157-9Heim, M. Discovery of the krypton isotopes / M. Heim, A. Fritsch, A. Schuh, A. Shore, M. Thoennessen // Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. − 2010. − V. 96, N 4. − P. 333—340. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2010.01.001Heim M., Fritsch A., Schuh A., Shore A., Thoennessen M. Discovery of the krypton isotopes. Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, 2010, vol. 96, no. 4, pp. 333—340. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2010.01.001Collon, P. Tracing noble gas radionuclides in the environment / P. Collon, W. Kutschera, Z.−T. Lu // Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science. − 2004. − V. 54. − P. 39—67. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.nucl.53.041002.110622Collon P., Kutschera W., Lu Z.−T. Tracing noble gas radionuclides in the environment. Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science, 2004, vol. 54, pp. 39—67. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.nucl.53.041002.110622Eiting, C. J. Betavoltaic power cells / C. J. Eiting, V. Krishnamoorthy, E. Romero, S. Jones // Proc. of the 42nd Power Sources Conf. − 2006. Paper 25.5 − P. 601—605.Eiting C. J., Krishnamoorthy V., Romero E., Jones S. Betavoltaic power cells. Proc. of the 42nd Power Sources Conf., 2006, pp. 601—605.Thoennessen, M . Discovery of isotopes with Z ≤ 10 / M. Thoennessen // Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. − 2012. − V. 98, N 1. − P. 43—62. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.08.002Thoennessen M. Discovery of isotopes with Z ≤ 10. Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 1, pp. 43—62. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.08.002Lewis, G. N. A spectroscopic search for H3 in concentrated H2 / G. N. Lewis, F. H. Spedding // Phys. Rev. − 1933. − V. 43, N 12. − P. 964—966. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.43.964Lewis G. N., Spedding F. H. A spectroscopic search for H3 in concentrated H2. Physical Review, 1933, vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 964—966. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.43.964Eidinoff, M. L. Upper limit to the tritium content of ordinary water / M. L. Eidinoff // The Journal of Chemical Physics. − 1947. − V. 15, N 6. − P. 416. DOI: 10.1063/1.1746547Eidinoff M. L. Upper limit to the tritium content of ordinary water. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 1947, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 416. DOI: 10.1063/1.1746547Suhaimi, A. Measurement of 14N(n,t)12C reaction cross section in the energy range of 5.0 to 10.6 MeV / A. Suhaimi, R. Wölfle, S. M. Qaim, P. Warwick, G. Stöcklin // Radiochimica Acta. − 1988. − V. 43, N 3. − P. 133—138. DOI: 10.1524/ract.1988.43.3.133Suhaimi A., Wölfle R., Qaim S. M., Warwick P., Stöcklin G. Measurement of 14N(n,t)12C reaction cross section in the energy range of 5.0 to 10.6 MeV. Radiochimica Acta, 1988, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 133—138. DOI: 10.1524/ract.1988.43.3.133Oliver, B. M . Tritium half−life measured by helium−3 growth / B. M. Oliver, H. Farrar IV, M. M. Bretscher // Applied Radiation and Isotopes. − 1987. − V. 38, N 11. − P. 959—965. DOI: 10.1016/0883-2889(87)90268-1Oliver B. M., Farrar IV H., Bretscher M. M. Tritium half−life measured by helium−3 growth. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 1987, vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 959—965. DOI: 10.1016/0883-2889(87)90268-1Myers , E . G. Atomic masses of tritium and helium−3 / E. G. Myers, A. Wagner, H. Kracke, B. A. Wesson // Phys. Rev. Lett. − 2015. − V. 114, N 1. − P. 013003—1−5. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev-Lett.114.013003Myers E. G., Wagner A., Kracke H., Wesson B. A. Atomic masses of tritium and helium−3. Phys. Rev. Lett., 2015, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 013003—1−5. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.013003Oliphant, M. L . E . Transmutation effects observed with heavy hydrogen / M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck, O. M. Rutherford // Proc. of the Royal Society of London A. − 1934. − V. 144, N 853. − P. 692—703. DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1934.0077Oliphant M. L. E., Harteck P., Rutherford O. M. Transmutation effects observed with heavy hydrogen. Proc. Royal Society of London A, 1934, vol. 144, no. 853, pp. 692—703. DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1934.0077Morgan, L. Tritium breeding control within liquid metal blankets / L. Morgan, J. Pasley // Fusion Engineering and Design. − 2013. − V. 88, N 3. − P. 107—112. DOI: 10.1016/j.fusengdes.2012.11.011Morgan L., Pasley J. Tritium breeding control within liquid metal blankets. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2013, vol. 88, no. 3, pp. 107—112. DOI: 10.1016/j.fusengdes.2012.11.011Matsuura, H. Evaluation of tritium production rate in a gas−cooled reactor with continuous tritium recovery system for fusion reactors / H. Matsuura, H. Nakaya, Y. Nakao, S. Shimakawa, M. Goto, Sh. Nakagawa, M. Nishikawa // Fusion Engineering and Design. − 2013. − V. 88, N 8–9. − P. 2219—2222. DOI: 10.1016/j.fusengdes.2013.05.022Matsuura H., Nakaya H., Nakao Y., Shimakawa S., Goto M., Nakagawa Sh., Nishikawa M. Evaluation of tritium production rate in a gas−cooled reactor with continuous tritium recovery system for fusion reactors. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2013, vol. 88, no. 8–9, pp. 2219—2222. DOI: 10.1016/j.fusengdes.2013.05.022Engelkemeir, A . G. The half−life of radiocarbon (C14) / A. G. Engelkemeir, W. H. Hamill, M. G. Inghram, W. F. Libby // Phys. Rev. − 1949. − V. 75, N 12. − P. 1825—1833. DOI: 10.1103/Phys-Rev.75.1825Engelkemeir A. G., Hamill W. H., Inghram M. G., Libby W. F. The half−life of radiocarbon (C14). Phys. Rev., 1949, vol. 75, no. 12, pp. 1825—1833. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.75.1825Langer, L. M. Low energy Beta−Ray spectra: Pm147 S35 / L. M. Langer, J. W. Motz, H. C. Price, Jr. // Phys. Rev. − 1950. − V. 77, N 7. − P. 798—806. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.77.798Langer L. M., Motz J. W., Price, Jr. H. C. Low energy Beta− Ray spectra: Pm147 S35. Phys. Rev., 1950, vol. 77, no. 7, pp. 798—806. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.77.798Korff, S. A. On the contribution to the ionization at sea−level produced by the neutrons in the cosmic radiation / S. A. Korff // Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity. − 1940. − V. 45, N 2. − P. 133—134. DOI: 10.1029/TE045i002p00133Korff S. A. On the contribution to the ionization at sea−level produced by the neutrons in the cosmic radiation. Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 1940, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 133—134. DOI: 10.1029/TE045i002p00133Hannа, G. C. Thermal neutron cross sections and resonance integrals of the reactions O17(n,α)C14, Ar36(n,α)S33, and N14(n,p)C14 / G. C. Hannа, D. B. Primeau, P. R. Tunnicliffe // Canadian Journal of Physics. − 1961. − V. 39, N 12. − P. 1784—1806. DOI: 10.1139/p61-201Hannа G. C., Primeau D. B., Tunnicliffe P. R. Thermal neutron cross sections and resonance integrals of the reactions O17(n,α) C14, Ar36(n,α)S33, and N14(n,p)C14. Canadian Journal of Physics, 1961, vol. 39, no. 12, pp. 1784—1806. DOI: 10.1139/p61-201Konstantinov, E. A. 14C emission from RBMK−1500 reactors and features determining it / E. A. Konstantinov, N. A. Korablev, E. N. Solov’ev, V. P. Shamov, V. L. Fedorov, A. M. Litvinov // Soviet Atomic Energy. − 1989. − V. 66, N 1. − P. 77—79. DOI: 10.1007/BF01121081Konstantinov E. A., Korablev N. A., Solov’ev E. N., Shamov V. P., Fedorov V. L., Litvinov A. M. 14C emission from RBMK−1500 reactors and features determining it. Soviet Atomic Energy, 1989, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 77—79. DOI: 10.1007/BF01121081Choppin, G. Radiochemistry and nuclear chemistry / G. Choppin, J.−O. Liljenzin, J. Rydberg, C. Ekberg. − Amsterdam; Boston; Heidelberg; London; New York; Oxford; Paris; San Diego; San Francisco; Sydney; Tokyo: Academic Press (Elsevier), 2013. − 866 p. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-405897-2.01001-6Choppin G., Liljenzin J.−O., Rydberg J., Ekberg C. Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry. Amsterdam; Boston; Heidelberg; London; New York; Oxford; Paris; San Diego; San Francisco; Sydney; Tokyo: Academic Press (Elsevier), 2013. 866 p. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-405897-2.01001-6Mannik, L. Laser enrichment of carbon−14 / L. Mannik, S. K. Brown // Appl. Phys. B. − 1985. − V. 86, N 2. − P. 79—86. DOI: 10.1007/BF00692553Mannik L., Brown S. K. Laser enrichment of carbon−14. Appl. Phys. B, 1985, vol. 86, no. 2, pp. 79—86. DOI: 10.1007/BF00692553Voges, R. Preparation of compounds labeled with tritium and carbon−14 / R. Voges, J. R. Heys, T. Moenius. − Wiley, 2009. − 682 p.Voges R., Heys J. R., Moenius T. Preparation of compounds labeled with tritium and carbon−14. Wiley, 2009. 682 p.Garofali, K. Discovery of chromium, manganese, nickel, and copper isotopes / K. Garofali, R. Robinson, M. Thoennessen // Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. − 2012. − V. 98, N 2. − P. 356—372. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.11.002Garofali K., Robinson R., Thoennessen M. Discovery of chromium, manganese, nickel, and copper isotopes. Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 356—372. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.11.002Gresits, I. Determination of soft X−ray emitting isotopes in radioactive liquid wastes of nuclear power plants / I. Gresits, S. Tolgyesi // Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. − 2003. − V. 258, N 1. − P. 107—112. DOI: 10.1023/A:1026214310645Gresits I., Tolgyesi S. Determination of soft X−ray emitting isotopes in radioactive liquid wastes of nuclear power plants. J. Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 2003., vol. 258, no. 1, pp. 107—112. DOI: 10.1023/A:1026214310645Holm, E. Radioanalytical studies of fallout 63Ni / E. Holm, P. Rots, B. Skwarzec // International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation. Part A. Applied Radiation and Isotopes. − 1992. − V. 43, N 1–2. − P. 371—376. DOI: 10.1016/0883-2889(92)90107-PHolm E., Rots P., Skwarzec B. Radioanalytical studies of fallout 63Ni. International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation. Pt A. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 1992, vol. 43, no. 1−2, pp. 371—376. DOI: 10.1016/0883-2889(92)90107-PColle, R. 63Ni, its half−life and standardization: Revisited / R. Colle, B.E. Zimmerman, P. Cassette, L. Laureano−Perez // Applied Radiation and Isotopes. − 2008. − V. 66, N 1. − P. 60—68. DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2007.07.017Colle R., Zimmerman B. E., Cassette P., Laureano−Perez L. 63Ni, its half−life and standardization: Revisited. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 2008, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 60—68. DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2007.07.017Gaitskell, R. J. A measurement of the beta spectrum of 63Ni using a new type of calorimetric cryogenic detector / R. J. Gaitskell, L. C. Angrave, N. E. Booth, A. D. Hahn, A. M Swift // Phys. Lett. B. − 1996. − V. 370, N 1–2. − P. 163—166. DOI: 10.1016/0370-2693(96)00084-6Gaitskell R. J., Angrave L. C., Booth N. E., Hahn A. D., Swift A. M. A measurement of the beta spectrum of 63Ni using a new type of calorimetric cryogenic detector. Physics Letters B, 1996, vol. 370, no. 1–2, pp. 163—166. DOI: 10.1016/0370-2693(96)00084-6Angrave, L . C. Measurement of the atomic exchange effect in nuclear β decay / L. C. Angrave, N. E. Booth, R. J. Gaitskell, G. L. Salmon // Phys. Rev. Lett. − 1998. − V. 80, N 8. − P. 1610—1613. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.1610Angrave L. C., Booth N. E., Gaitskell R. J., Salmon G. L. Measurement of the atomic exchange effect in nuclear β decay. Phys. Rev. Lett., 1998, vol. 80, no. 8, pp. 1610—1613. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev-Lett.80.1610Coursey, B. M. The standardization of plutonium−241 and nickel−63 / B. M. Coursey, L. L. Lucas, A. Grau Malonda, E. Garcia− Torano // Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment. − 1989. − V. 279, N 3. − P. 603—610. DOI: 10.1016/0168-9002(89)91310-7Coursey B. M., Lucas L. L., Grau Malonda A., Garcia− Torano E. The standardization of plutonium−241 and nickel− 63. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 1989, vol. 279, no. 3, pp. 603—610. DOI: 10.1016/0168-9002(89)91310-7Le−Bret, C. Study of the influence of the source quality on the determination of the shape factor of beta spectra / C. Le−Bret,•M. Loidl,•M. Rodrigues,•X. Mougeot, J. Bouchard // J. Low Temperature Physics. − 2012. − V. 167, N 5. − P. 985—990. DOI: 10.1007/s10909-012-0607-6Le−Bret C., Loidl M., Rodrigues M., Mougeot X., Bouchard J. Study of the influence of the source quality on the determination of the shape factor of beta spectra. J. Low Temperature Physics, 2012, vol. 167, no. 5, pp. 985—990. DOI: 10.1007/s10909-012-0607-6Sims, G. H. E. The beta self−absorption of Ni63 as metallic nickel / G. H. E. Sims, D. G. Juhnke // International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes. − 1967. − V. 18, N 10. − P. 727—728. DOI: 10.1016/0020-708X(67)90034-8Sims G. H. E., Juhnke D. G. The beta self−absorption of Ni63 as metallic nickel. International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 1967, vol. 18, no. 11, pp. 727—728. DOI: 10.1016/0020-708X(67)90034-8Gelsema, W. J. The self−absorption of the beta−radiation of 63Ni in metallic nickel sources / W. J. Gelsema, L. Donk, J. H. T. F. P. v. Enckevort, H. A. Blijleven // Journal of Chemical Education. − 1969. − V. 46, N 8. − P. 528—530. DOI: 10.1021/ed046p528Gelsema W. J., Donk L., v. Enckevort J. H. T. F. P., Blijleven H. A. The self−absorption of the beta−radiation of 63Ni in metallic nickel sources. J. Chemical Education, 1969, vol. 46, no. 8, pp. 528—530. DOI: 10.1021/ed046p528Barnes, I. L. Nickel−63: standardization, half−life and neutron−capture cross−section / I. L. Barnes, S. B. Garfinkel, W. B. Mann // The International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes. − 1971. − V. 22, N 12. − P. 777—781. DOI: 10.1016/0020-708X(71)90143-8Barnes I. L., Garfinkel S. B., Mann W. B. Nickel−63: standardization, half−life and neutron−capture cross−section. The International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 1971, vol. 22, no. 12, pp. 777—781. DOI: 10.1016/0020-708X(71)90143-8Sosnin, L. J. Production of 63Ni of high specific activity / L. J. Sosnin, I. A. Suvorov, A. N. Tcheltsov, B. I. Rogozev // Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A. − 1993. − V. 334, N 1. − P. 43—44. DOI: 10.1016/0168-9002(93)90526-NSosnin L. J., Suvorov I. A., Tcheltsov A. N., Rogozev B. I. Production of 63Ni of high specific activity. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A, 1993, vol. 334, no. 1, pp. 43—44. DOI: 10.1016/0168-9002(93)90526-NNumajiri, M. Estimation of nickel−63 in steel and copper activated at high−energy accelerator facilities / M. Numajiri, Y. Oki, T. Suzuki, T. Miura, M. Taira, Yu. Kanda, K. Kondo // Applied Radiation and Isotopes. − 1994. − V. 45, N 4. − P. 509—514. DOI: 10.1016/0969-8043(94)90116-3Numajiri M., Oki Y., Suzuki T., Miura T., Taira M., Kanda Yu., Kondo K. Estimation of nickel−63 in steel and copper activated at high− energy accelerator facilities. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 1994, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 509—514. DOI: 10.1016/0969-8043(94)90116-3Pustovalov, A. A. 63Ni−based β−electric current source / A. A. Pustovalov, V. V. Gusev, V. V. Zadde, N. S. Petrenko, L. A. Tsvetkov, A. V. Tikhomirov // Atomic Energy. − 2007. − V. 103, N 6. − P. 353—356. DOI: 10.1007/s10512-007-0151-7Pustovalov A. A., Gusev V. V., Zadde V. V., Petrenko N. S., Tsvetkov L. A., Tikhomirov A. V. 63Ni−based β− electric current source. Atomic Energy, 2007, vol. 103, no. 6, pp. 353—356. DOI: 10.1007/s10512−007−0151−7Parker, A. M. Discovery of rubidium, strontium, molybdenum, and rhodium isotopes / A. M. Parker, M. Thoennessen // Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. − 2012. − V. 98, N 4. − P. 812—831. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2012.06.001Parker A. M., Thoennessen M. Discovery of rubidium, strontium, molybdenum, and rhodium isotopes. Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 4, pp. 812—831. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2012.06.001Nystrom, A . Discovery of yttrium, zirconium, niobium, technetium, and ruthenium isotopes / A. Nystrom, M. Thoennessen // Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. − 2012. − V. 98, N 2. − P. 95—119. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.12.002Nystrom A., Thoennessen M. Discovery of yttrium, zirconium, niobium, technetium, and ruthenium isotopes. Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 95—119. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.12.002Horwitz, E. P. SREX: A new process for the extraction and recovery of strontium from acidic nuclear waste streams / E. P. Horwitz, M. L. Dietz, D. E. Fisher // Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange. − 1991. − V. 9, N 1. − P. 1—25. DOI: 10.1080/07366299108918039Horwitz E. P., Dietz M. L., Fisher D. E. SREX: A new process for the extraction and recovery of strontium from acidic nuclear waste streams . Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange, 1991, vol. 9, no.1, pp. 1—25. DOI: 10.1080/07366299108918039Loferski, J. J. Radiation damage in Ge and Si detected by carrier lifetime changes: Damage thresholds / J. J. Loferski, P. Rappaport // Physical Review. − 1958. − V. 111, N 2. − P. 432—439.Loferski J. J., Rappaport P. Radiation damage in Ge and Si detected by carrier lifetime changes: Damage thresholds. Physical Review, 1958, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 432—439.Flicker, H. Construction of a promethium−147 atomic battery / H. Flicker, J. J. Loferski, T. S. Elleman // IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. − 1964. − V. 11, N 1. − P. 2—8. DOI: 10.1109/TED.1964.15271Flicker H., Loferski J. J., Elleman T. S. Construction of a promethium−147 atomic battery. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, 1964, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 2—8. DOI: 10.1109/T-ED.1964.15271Manjunatha, H. C. External bremsstrahlung of 90Sr−90Y, 147Pm and 204Tl in detector compounds / H. C. Manjunatha, B. Rudraswamy // Radiation Physics and Chemistry. − 2013. − V. 85. − P. 95—101. DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2012.12.022Manjunatha H.C, Rudraswamy B. External bremsstrahlung of 90Sr−90Y, 147Pm and 204Tl in detector compounds. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 2013, vol. 85, pp. 95—101. DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2012.12.022May, E. Discovery of cesium, lanthanum, praseodymium and promethium isotopes / E. May, M. Thoennessen // Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. − 2012. − V. 98, N 5. − P. 960—982. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.09.005May E, Thoennessen M. Discovery of cesium, lanthanum, praseodymium nd promethium isotopes. Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 5, pp. 960—982. DOI: 10.1016/j.adt.2011.09.005Reader, J. Promethium 147 hyperfine structure under high resolution / J. Reader, S. P. Davis // Journal of the Optical Society of America. − 1963. − V. 53, N 4. − P. 431—435. DOI: 10.1364/JOSA.53.000431Reader J., Davis S. P. Promethium 147 hyperfine structure under high resolution. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 1963, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 431—435. DOI: 10.1364/JOSA.53.000431Gorshkov, V. K. 235U Fission product yields in the rare earth region / V. K. Gorshkov, R. N. Ivanov, G. M. Kukabadze, I. A. Reformatsky // Journal of Nuclear Energy. − 1958. − V. 8, N 1–3. − P. 69—73. DOI: 10.1016/0891−3919(58)90010−XGorshkov V. K., Ivanov R. N., Kukabadze G. M., Reformatsky I. A. 235U Fission product yields in the rare earth region. Journal of Nuclear Energy, 1958, vol. 8, no. 1–3, pp. 69—73. DOI: 10.1016/0891-3919(58)90010-XLee, C.−S. Chemical study on the separation and purification of promethium−147 / C.−S. Lee, Y.−M. Wang, W.−L. Cheng, G. Ting // Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. − 1989. − V. 130, N 1. − P. 21—37. DOI: 10.1007/BF02037697Lee C.−S., Wang Y.−M., Cheng W.−L., Ting G. Chemical study on the separation and purification of promethium−147. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 1989, vol. 130, no. 1, pp. 21—37. DOI: 10.1007/BF02037697Yoshida, M. A rapid separation method for determination of promethium−147 and samarium−151 in environmental samples with high performance liquid chromatography / M. Yoshida, S. Sumiya, H. Watanabe, K. Tobita // Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. − 1995. − V. 197, N 2. − P. 219—227. DOI: 10.1007/BF02036001Yoshida M., Sumiya S., Watanabe H., Tobita K. A rapid separation method for determination of promethium−147 and samarium−151 in environmental samples with high performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 1995., vol. 197, no. 2, pp. 219—227. DOI: 10.1007/BF02036001

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.